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Literature

Extant ecclesiastical works survive from the 11th century, and by the second half of the 15th century Croatian literature embraced biblical stories, legends, folklore, and popular stories. In the 15th and 16th centuries the outstanding Old Croatian writers were:

• Marko Marulić, author of the epic Istoria sfete udovice Judit u versih harvacchi slozena (written 1501, published 1521; "The History of the Holy Widow Judith Composed in Croatian Verses," usually known as Judita), a plea for the national struggle against the Ottoman Empire; 
• Hanibal Lucić, author of Robinja ("The Slave Girl"), the first South Slav secular play; 
• Marin Držić, who wrote pastoral dramas and comedies portraying Renaissance Dubrovnik (his comedy Dundo Maroje, first performed about 1551, played throughout western Europe);
  
• and poet Petar Hektorović.
  
• in the 17th and 18th centuries the leading voice belonged to Ivan Gundulić, author of a stirring epic, Osman (oldest existing copy approximately 1651; Eng. trans. Osman), describing the Polish victory over the Turks at Chocim (Khotin, now in Ukraine) in 1621.

Romanticism in Croatian literature evolved out of the Illyrian political movement (1835–48), which aimed at a union of all South Slavs within the Habsburg federation. Ljudevit Gaj, one of the leaders of the movement, promoted the štokavski (Shtokavian) dialect as the literary language of Croatia and also developed a unified orthography. Personal, patriotic, and reflective lyrics were popular and were well represented by the sensitive, moving poems of Stanko Vraz and Ivan Mažuranić. The latter was best known for his longer narrative poem Smrt Smail-age Čengića (1846; The Death of Smail Aga), written in the tradition of oral epic poetry and showing South Slavic allegiance by taking as its subject the struggle of Montenegrins against the Turks. Other representative lyrical works include the patriotic songs and poetic drama of Petar Preradović and the dramatic works of Dimitrije Demeter. Another major figure, in the late 19th century, was August Šenoa, poet, dramatist, critic, journalist, and creator of the Croatian historical novel of realism. Conditions among the lower classes became a concern of many Croat writers of the period, including:

• Eugen Kumičić, 
• Ksaver Šandor Gjalski,
  
• and Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević.
  

In his autobiographically charged U registraturi (1888; "In the Registrar's Office"), commonly considered the best Croatian novel of the 19th century, Ante Kovačić tells a poignant tale of a talented village boy sent to the city for schooling. He gives a penetrating portrayal of both rural and urban settings and of human destinies of the time.

In the opening years of the 20th century, poetry was the dominant genre, much of it influenced by the Aestheticism movement and concerned with the inner struggles of modern humans with their world and the search for meaning in individual existence. These common Western themes were modified by specifically Croatian concerns with the country's lack of development and political subjugation (to Hungary at that time). Well-known writers of that time include Vladimir Vidrić and Vladimir Nazor. The leading figure of the early Modernist phase until World War I was Antun Gustav Matoš. He edited the anthology Mlada hrvatska lirika (1914; "The Young Croatian Lyric"), which marked the zenith of such verse. Between the wars, avant-garde poetry continued to be expressed in the verse of poets such as Tin Ujević and Antun Branko Šimić, while Ivan Goran Kovačić, in Jama (1943; The Pit), a long poem evoking the horror of war, retained a classical elegance in his verse. Prose writers included:

• Dinko Šimunović, whose memorable stories depicted both the backwardness and the beauty of Dalmatia;
• Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, who earned lasting popularity with her masterpiece collection of poetic fairy tales, Price iz davnine (1916; Croatian Tales of Long Ago);
  
• the prolific Marija Jurić Zagorka, who wrote gripping historical novels;
• and Slavko Kolar, who depicted the life of the peasant in a changing world.
  

The dominant writers of the interwar period were August Cesarec (Zlatni mladic [1928; “The Golden Boy”]) and Miroslav Krleža (Povratak Filipa Latinovicza [1932; The Return of Philip Latinovicz] and the collection of English translations The Cricket Beneath the Waterfall and Other Stories [1972]). Both presented contemporary social problems as the result of class exploitation and deeply explored the psychology of their characters. Krleža is known not only for his imaginative writing, which spanned the century to his death in 1981, but also for his work as an editor of literary periodicals, as an essayist, and as a critic who dominated Croatian cultural life for much of the century.

In the less-restrictive atmosphere that followed Yugoslavia's break with the Stalinist Soviet Union in 1948, new prose writers included Ranko Marinković (Kiklop, "The Cyclops"]) and Vjekoslav Kaleb (Divota prašine [1954; "The Wonder of Dust"), who wrote on the war and contemporary society in Croatia. Vesna Parun, an important and fruitful poet, was recognized most notably for her collection of poems Crna maslina (1955, "Black Olive Tree"). The younger prose writer Antun Šoljan took more cosmopolitan themes for his work, as did the poet Ivan Slamnig of the same generation. In the latter part of the 20th century, Croatian literature included experimental autobiographies by:

• Irena Vrkljan (Marina ili o biografiji [1985; Marina; or, About Biography]), playing with the boundaries between autobiography and biography;
  
• spirited stories and novels by Dubravka Ugrešić;
  
• essays and novels by feminist journalist and writer Slavenka Drakulić (The Balkan Express, 1993);
• genre novels by the popular Pavao Pavličić;
  
• prose by a prolific Croatian-Bosnian writer of the younger generation, Miljenko Jergović,
  
• and, at the turn of the 21st century, by Zoran Ferić, Ante Tomić, and Julijana Matanović.